A look into history Essay Example for Free

A look into history Essay What would constitute a period in history called a â€Å"Golden Age†? Would the prosperity seen and felt by people make the description adequate? Would a greater sense of freedom in the regions of the world fit the description? How can we describe a â€Å"Golden Age†? In the years of the so-called â€Å"Golden Era†, from 1950-1973, the world saw an unprecedented rise in term of growth, with global averages reaching 4. 9 percent in the period of national Keynesianism (Monthly Review). This period, however, was not an isolated one (Institute of Industrial Relations). The period with the highest national growth rate, from 1935-1950, after an expansion in the previous economic period, 1918-1935, the distance between the two ends of the income distribution became smaller (IRI). Families of workers tried to adjust the loss of distance from the black community by downsizing in terms of number of additions to the family and the use of utilities (IRI). But in order for us to fully grasp the meaning why this period in time is called the Golden Age, we have to frame it beside two other growth periods, one before the age and the one just after it. It must be also noted if there were changes in the period that contributed to the growth of the succeeding growth periods. Before the Golden Age Families in the United States used to see how they have progressed through the years by taking a peek at their family albums, remembering the early years of their parents hard life (Bob Davis David Wessel). During the years of the Age, almost every tier of American life had been extended the benefit of a upbeat and climbing standard of living (Davis Wessel). But again, we must peek farther than the time before this period of unprecedented growth. In the past two centuries the world has seen an era of unhampered growth (Bart van Ark). In the years between 1820 and 1997, the gross domestic product around the world rose at around 2. 2 percent on the average (van Ark). This growth rate was around seven times the growth the world experienced from the preceding period, from 1500to 1820 (van Ark). But as time wore on, the disparity between the recipients of that high growth rate become more and more separated (van Ark). The worlds growth rate accelerated in 1870, and again at the beginning of the Golden Age, in 1950 (van Ark). Since the growth of the worlds economy grew in that time frame, it is not ti be understood that everyone benefited from that growth in equal shares (van Ark). Great Britain, one of the leading powers during the era, learned very well from the lessons of the founder of the capitalist system, Adam Smith (Robert L. Bartley). Smith blieved that raising the economic bar could only be done by practising free and open market principles, that traders and merchants interacting with the consumers will lead to a better share of the economic benefits (Bartley). Agnus Maddison, widely regarded as one of the premier authorities on long-term growth, gives us some insights into the growth engines at the time (Daniel Ben-Ami). In his studies, Maddison points to the year 1820 as one the more impotant inflection periods in the study of the worlds growth (Bartley). Global GDP per capita hadd increased from $420 dollars (1990 value) to about $545 by about the year 1820 (Bartley). The period of 1913-1950 would probably be the most interesting sections of the years before the Golden Age. This period embraces the events of two world wars, the Great Depression, the economic upswing in the 1920s (Bhanoji Rao), and one of the greatest political and bloody historical events in the modern era, the Bolshevik Revolution (Irma Adelman). Both World War one and two reversed the trends for the unrestrained movement of goods, money and migration of people (Rao). But in developing nations, the effects of these events were not felt as much, thus mirroring the differing aspects of the Wars and the Depression (Rao). In the aftermath of the war, large influential movements had espoused the needs for reform, and the captains in the capitalist end of the world were afraid of a return to the time of the Depression (Crotty). What should be seen however in this time before and after the Industrial Revolution was not the disparity in growth rates (Adelman). What was evident during this time was the degree that events bought leading to worldwide economic insecurity and to the global economic framework as a a whole (Adelman). The initiatives aimed at halting the transfer of the economic downturn led to the adoption of very strict global trading and payment methods (Adelman). As the initiatives took hold, tariffs and other quantity restrictions were soon implemented (Adelman). Tight constraints were implemented for the regulation on the movement of workers and capital (Adelman). The value of many currencies tended to be overvalued (Adelman). Rampant and widespread inflation led to the collapse of international payments (Adelman). This development led to the adoption of extreme government concern as to the stability of prices and foreign exchange as it relates to the level of unemployment (Adelman). Shifting to the Golden Era The march toward the golden age of the worlds growth had been marked by a shift from a market-driven and guided economy to one that was basically a government managed type (James Crotty). The era of the Golden age can be characterized by one of swift and widely distributed growth, having for its foundations an increase of control over quality of the markets dictated by the market and vented through the state (Crotty). Rather than a time of markets being centralized, it was a time rather of the markets being embedded in the society, the state rather than an enforcer taking on the role of a guide (Crotty). Agnus Maddison calculated that the worlds GDP rose to an average of 2. 9 percent, hitting 3. 9 percent in Europe and about 8 percent in the European continent (Bartley). The Second World War had spawned a time of demand that was pent -up during the time of the war, as capital and infrastructure was totally wiped out in Japan and on the Continent (Adelman). The command type of economy that was installed during the war, quickly gave way to the reinstitution of the usual framework of capitalism (Adelman). A great aid in the redevelopment of devastated Europe to get the continent up on its feet was the Marshall Plan (Adelman). With this Plan in place, the capital needs and infrastructure needed to jumpstart the economies of Europe were set in motion (Adelman). It was during this time, as stated earlier, that the world was experiencing a high degree of growth (Ben-Ami). In Japan, the Golden Age and the following decades after, the land of the rising sun was identified with the traits of efficiency and the highest levels of manufacturing standards (Terutomo Ozawa). This was exemplified by the low cost in the production of their automobiles nd electronic products (Ozawa). In Europe, the road to recovery was much simpler (Barry Eichengreen). Europe at the time underwent an almost complete transformation in the way they conducted their lives. In the middle of the century, Europes households had heat from burning coal, kept their food fresh with ice, and had no semblance even of basic plumbing. At present, they have gas-fired furnaces for heating, refrigerators to keep their food stuffs, and an endless number of electronic items that will make one dizzy. Incomes of an average European nearly went to three times their value by the turn of the century (Eichengreen). Also, working conditions and hours steadily improved, as time at work was reduced by at least a third, giving a boost to the leisure time of Europeans (Eichengreen). An upswing in the rates of the life expectancy in Europes residents was enhanced by new technological discoveries in health accompanied by a parallel advances in nutrition (Eichengreen). But all was not a pretty picture, as one would think. Levels of the ranks of the unemployed rose. Taxes levied on the people increased. The effects of the destruction of the environment, state repression and consumer spending limits were the order of the day under Eastern Europeans repressive regimes dominated that part of Europe for the next for decades following World War 2 (Eichengreen). But what made the road to recovery relatively easy for Europe? Europe, for its part, didnt have to plan anything new for its rebuilding; it just simply rebuilt. Europe just had to rebuild the damaged or destroyed infrastructure, reinvesting in its capital stock, and redeploying the men that were in the war effort to jobs in peacetime efforts (Eichengreen). This â€Å"catch-up† mentality had demonstrated itself in the utilization of technologies that were not yet in the pipeline, so to speak (Eichengreen). These were the technologies that were developed in the period between the wars, and were used by Europe to sustain its economic juggernaut (Eichengreen). But in the 1930s and 40s, Europe was thrown into an atmosphere of a depressed investment environment (Eichengreen). It was in this period that the United States gained a bit of a headway against their European counterparts. The Americans had outpaced Europe in terms of overall production and levels of productivity. By using the Americans technology, under license, adopting their business philosophies of American mass-production and personnel management, Europe could close the gap on the Americans. Hence was born the concept of â€Å"convergence†, fusing the levels of per capita income and levels of productivity to that of the United States (Eichengreen). But in the generation of wealth, particularly in the aspect of its distribution, not all of Europe could say that they were given an equal share of the pie, so to speak. For example, the northern parts of Europe were gaining faster than their southern counterparts. The same trend went for Western Europe, outpacing Eastern Europe. Eastern Europes woes came a failure of the central planning strategy that was common in the authoritarian governments that dominated that part of the continent. Though these are also important features of the Golden Age in Europe, nevertheless the period marked an era of expanded growth and change on the continent (Eichengreen). The economic machine of the Japanese economy, after the brilliant star of its economic achievements faded, had gone from one that was admired to one that was dealt with indifference, even one thrown pity (Ozawa). This was bought about by the virtues of the Japanese to put into secure positions some of the political interests rather than focusing on the real problems that had dogged the nations economy (Ozawa). In its early steps to climb out of the destruction wrought upon it in the 2nd World War, Japan had adopted its industry to a road of industrial improvement, moving from low value industrial output, gradually moving up to higher levels of value-added goods (Ozawa). But as the years passed, Japan began to remove the protection it afforded to its industries, essentially preparing them for competition (Ozawa). These industries that were left unsheltered were the ones that are the reason for the current state of the Japanese economys morass (Ozawa). Most of the world had been under the Bretton Woods Agreement (Adelman). This agreement was instrumental to the reintroduction to the regime of fixed rate payments, all payments to be based on the value of the dollar (Adelman). This regime was supported by a number of international organizations with the goal of giving some form of flexibility and in the management of foreign exchange inconsistencies (Adelman). After the Golden Era, the period of another growth slowdown was about to rear its head. After the Bubble burst After the Bretton Woods agreement had collapsed and countries and adopted more flexible foreign exchange rates, coupled with the skyrocketing of the price of oil, all these led to the indication that the Golden era was officially over (Rao). This was the era of the â€Å"stagflation† that hit the world in the mid-1970s (Ben-Ami). The Bretton agreement had become quite inadequate in meeting the liquidity requirements of most nations (Adelman). When the agreement eventually broke down, the system was replaced by a unstable, fluctuating means of foreign exchange (Adelman). The currencies of many countries went through a period of devaluation against the American currency (Adelman). But this was only the precursor of the coming storm. Oil prices had tripled their price in 1974, cereals doubled their prices by 1973, and gold prices doubled in the years of 1971-1973 (Adelman). Other problems were beginning to crop up for the world as the age ended. According to the International Labor Organization in its 1995 report on world unemployment, does not dispute the fact the upswing in the worlds economic standing, but it also emphasizes that the world, after the Golden Era, witnessed its GDP cut in half, and the levels of unemployment had reached levels never before seen or to be even though of during the era (Canadian Auto Workers Union). For this reason, economists divide the era into two parts (CAW). The first 25 years at the turn of the century has been called the â€Å"Golden Era†, the second part is called â€Å"The Age of Permanent Insecurity† (CAW). The effects of the downturn were quite visible. Growth rates had been sliced in half, good jobs were the exception rather than the norm, wages did not go up, surpluses were wiped out and social programs introduced at the end of the golden age, were dismantled at a slow but steady pace (CAW). Within a generation, the rate of growth fell to half its previous level, unemployment rates doubled, and decent jobs became the exception. Real wages stopped growing, budget surpluses turned into chronic deficits, and social programs which were proudly introduced near the end of the first period were dismantled in the second slowly at first, but then at an accelerating pace (CAW). The labor market in Canada and other industrialized nations also took a hit, as the unemployment rates hit 9 percent in the latter part of the turn of the century, as compared to the 4. 5 percent average registered in the first half (CAW). In the United States, the Federal budget registered a budget surplus from 1946 to 1970 (CAW). In the years following the Golden Era, the Federal government has never once posted a budget surplus (CAW). The Federal government, for every dollar that it allots for programs, it pays about 63 cents of its earnings to pay for the interest of its debt (CAW). The period after the War was one of significant unheralded growth, born out of the combination of several factors (CAW). Among them was the combination of the development of emerging technologies tapped during the War, the retooling of the war time workplace to be reused for peacetime work, reconstruction of the war torn areas of Europe and in Japan, the demand held in check for so long after the Great Depression and the restraints bought on by the war, and the new found competitive situation that it has found with Communist states (CAW). The War had asked from the citizens a great amount of sacrifice, these sacrifices led to the demand for the upgrading for the peoples living conditions, equity and concerns for their security concerns (CAW). These concessions were won over by the labor movement from very jittery corporations (CAW). But how does this relate to the downturn of the Golden Era? After The Golden Era, what happened? The concessions that the workers had gained from the corporations had produced a contradiction for them (CAW). In the case of Japan and Europe, after they had reconstructed from the destruction of the war and had strengthened their economies, was building a contradictory effect for the corporations (CAW). Once the economies were put back on line, the competition of the industrialized countries again began once again on the uptake (CAW). This upswing of the economies of capitalist industries put some amount of pressure on the companies profits (CAW). The companies in turn tried all efforts to put up a hedge around their profits (CAW), which companies then transferred these pressures from competition on the workers themselves (CAW). Since the workers felt secure and bold enough to challenge any initiative to be pressured in the workplace, the companies transformed these workers from mainly being employees to consumers, increasing their prices to keep their profit margins (CAW). The workers, feeling the pinch of the higher prices, asked the companies for the increases in their wages to match the increases that the companies imposed (CAW). This initiated the cycle of price escalation (CAW). The price increases had a negative impact on the global competitiveness of the corporations (CAW). As a result of such developments, inflationary pressures set in (CAW). The companies had to find ways to stay viable while contending with the workers, who were becoming hindrances to the company in terms of supervision over the workplace. As such, the companies had to choose, between the companies insatiable drive for profit and the needs of the society and the workers, the workers and society lost (CAW). Here is the start of the end of the Golden Era, where the share of the wealth began to be hoarded, rather than shared. Works Cited Adelamn, Irma. The genesis of the current global system. http://are. berkeley. edu/~adelman/KEYNOTE. html van Ark, Bart. Accumulation, productivity and technology: measurement and analysis of long term economic growth. http://wzus. ask. com/r? t=pd=uss=ac=al=diro=0sv=0a30050bip=3d1c9a 4aid=A85DDAB8DCDAC466AE1809C654D7BF3Fq=%60Golden+Era%60%2C +from+1950- 1973p=2qs=0ac=24g=38d1%feF2ARgR3en=teio=6ep=eo=b=algb c=br=tp=dec=10pt=http%3A%2F%2Fccso. eldoc. ub. rug. nl%2FFILES%2Froot %2F1999%2F199908%2F199908. pdfex=tsrc%3Dtxtxurl=u=http://ccso. eldoc. u b. rug. nl/FILES/root/1999/199908/199908. pdf Bartley, Robert L. The future of economic freedom. 2000 October 16. http://www. heritage. org/Research/TradeandForeignAid/wm383. cfm Ben-Ami, Daniel. Ferraris for all. 2007 January 27. http://www. danielbenami. com/2007_01_01_ferrarisforall_archive. html Canadian Auto Workers. From False solutions to growing protest: recapturing the agenda. http://www. caw. ca/whatwedo/bargaining/cbpac/96highlights/96cawconvention1. asp Crotty, James. Trading state-led for market led stagnation: from the golden age to global neoliberalism. http://www. people. umass. edu/crotty/dymski-isn-ford. pdf Davis, Bob Wessel, David. The Golden Age: the rise of the American middle class. http://www-rohan. sdsu. edu/~rbutler/prosperity2. htm Eichengreen, Barry. The European Economy since 1945. The New York Times 2007 March 25. http://www. nytimes. com/2007/03/25/books/chapters/0325-1st- eich. html? pagewanted=all Monthly Review. Notes from the Editors. Monthly Review 2007 Septem

Team Leadership and Resolving Conflict Essay Example for Free

Team Leadership and Resolving Conflict Essay In this paper I will summarize the main points in the unit. The main points in the unit are the five major leadership perspectives, power and influence, and resolving conflict. I will review the key points by using cited passages from the assigned reading and selections from the unit three course room. I will also summarize course room discussion postings relevant to my central topics. In unit three McShane and Von Glinow (2010) discuss the five major leadership perspectives and list them as Competency, Behavioral, Contingency, Transformational, and Implicit (p. 378). There are a variety of ways to lead and different leaders may see fit to guide in various ways depending on the situation. Leaders must learn how to lead and what perspective to take in critical situations to achieve success. McShane and Von Glinow (2010) says, â€Å"Leadership is defined as the ability to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute towards the effectiveness and success of the organization of which they are members† (p. 378). The Competency Leadership Perspective names the distinctive qualities an efficient leader will likely have. McShane and Von Glinow (2010) identifies personality, self concept, integrity, drive, leadership motivation, knowledge of business, cognitive and practical intelligence, and emotional intelligence as valuable leadership traits (p. 362). Based on my professional work experience every good or successful leader I have encountered possessed almost every trait above. The Behavioral Perspective seems to focus on the correlation between behaviors exercised and successful leaders. Leaders who seem to be task and people oriented tend to do better in the world of leadership. McShane and Von Glinow (2010) says, â€Å"†¦job dissatisfaction are higher among employees who work with supervisors with very low levels of people-oriented leadership† (p. 365). Employee’s who feel their supervisors or managers don’t provide clear tasks and show the effort to express unders tanding for their needs will not bode well for that leaders success. The Contingency Leadership Perspective is centered around the idea that each individual situation warrants a unique combination of leadership tactics. McShane and Von Glinow (2010) says, â€Å"The contingency perspective of leadership is based on the idea that the most appropriate leadership style depends on the situation (p. 365). The Transformational Leadership Perspective basically is about the leader building a mutual vision and demonstrating the way it should be done at all times. Leading by example is key to gaining the necessary influences needed to enable followers. If a leader effectively shows their followers they are committed by walking the walk it helps in building the necessary connection needed between leader and follower. The Implicit Leadership Perspective is based on fixed ideas of what a successful leader should be. McShane and Vin Glinow (2010) says, â€Å"We are more willing to allow someone to influence us as a leader if that person looks and acts like our pro totype of a leader† (p. 375). McShane and Von Glinow (2010) describe power as â€Å"the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others† (p. 300). McShane and Von Glinow (2010) discusses the ways power is gained and through what method which are referent, expert, coercive, reward and legitimate (p. 301). I have encountered every type of power listed above. Based on my past experiences I prefer to use and be managed by referent power. Referent of power allows those in leadership roles to be approachable and allows them to relate to their subordinates which creates a feeling of trust and respect. Once this level of respect is established it will be easier for the leader to use more aggressive types of power methods if need be. For example, I had a supervisor in a previous position that was able to identify on every level with all of his employee’s. His communication skills were excellent so this allowed him to gain the trust and respect of his workers. McShane and Von Glinow (2010) says, â€Å"people have referent power when others identify with them, like them, or otherwise respect them† (p.303). McShane and Von Glinow (2010) describes influence as â€Å"†¦behavior that attempts to alter one’s attitude or behavior† (p. 309). Knowing how to effectively influence others is key to becoming a successful leader. The influences tactics discussed in our course text are silent authority, information control, assertiveness, coalition formation, upward appeal, persuasion, impression management and ingratiation. Recognizing what combination of power and or influence you need to use in a specific situation is essential to becoming a successful leader. Resolving conflict in the work place can be very difficult to achieve if the right approach isn’t taken by management and employees. Broome, DeTurk, Kristjansdottir, Kanata, and Ganesan (2002) says, â€Å"Differences in perspectives, frames of reference, values, norms, and communication styles are often aggravated by stereotypes, prejudices, and misunderstandings, so that decision-making, problem solving and conflict management become extremely complex† (p. 240). Interactive Management is a process that helps diffuse potentially explosive conflict issues and allows for a productive resolution for both parties involved in the conflict. This process involves all parties to first identify the problem, second establish a course of action moving forward, and third build an effective plan that will be successful. With this type of approach to conflict it allows for communication to stay open and gives the conflict a fair chance to be resolved. Broome, DeTurk, Kristjansdottir, Kanata, and Ganesan (2002) says, â€Å"Devoting time to bring together informed individuals with interest in an issue, and to carefully examine its source, can prevent the waste of time, effort, and other resources that would otherwise be devoted to pursuing ineffective solutions or fighting unnecessary battles† (p. 261). In unit three course room discussions Ray 12/9/11 talked about the importance of the Transformational leader’s perspective; building a mutual vision and showing their commitment to get that goal accomplished. McShane and Von Glinow (2010) says this about the Transformational perspective, â€Å"†¦agents of change who create, communicate, and model a shared vision for the team and inspire followers† (p. 371). I also feel that it is essential for a leader to get complete support from their followers to ensure a positive outcome. Once a leader has everyone on board with the vision, they are able to start building trust which will help establish a concrete foundation for success. Nakia 12/7/11 also had this to add, â€Å"In my opinion transformational leaders are the most inspiring leaders. They can take over a horrible company and change the entire culture of the organization†. In conclusion I have summarized the main points in unit three. These points were the five major Leadership Perspectives, power and influence, and resolving conflict. Leaders who understand how to use the right combination of proper perspectives, power and influence will be the most successful leaders. Additionally, successful leaders must know how to resolve conflict effectively. References Benjamin, Broome, J., DeTurk, S., Kristjansdottir, E. S., Kanata, T., Ganesan, P. (2002). Giving voice to diversity: An interactive approach to conflict management and decision- making in culturally diverse work environments. Journal of Business and Management, 8(3), 239-264. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/211509295?accountid=27965 McShane, S.L., Von Glinow, M.A. (2010). Organizational Behavior (5th Ed.). New York: McGraw- Hill/Irwin.

The Success Of Inmate Reentry Programs

The Success Of Inmate Reentry Programs What can correctional facilities offer to inmates to help those that are about to be released from prison keep from being rearrested. Most inmates who are released have no job, money, or a place to live. The same pressures and temptations that landed ex-offenders in prison are present in the environment that they often go back to. The key elements of successful re-entry into society after prison are finding and keeping a lucrative job, finding a descent place to live, and finding a mentor to help guide them in the right direction. Most of the communities that former inmates are released into are most often impoverished neighborhoods that do not contain the support that is key to the success of reentry into society from correctional facilities. Re-entry programs offered by correctional facilities can help smooth the transition, but they are not always successful. This paper discusses the successes and often the failures of the inmate re-entry programs. The Success of Inmate Re-Entry Programs Work release and educational programs were created throughout the federal prison systems as an effort to provide ex-offenders with an opportunity for preparation for release back into the community and to be productive contributors to society. Are these programs successful at their attempts, or is it a waste of government and taxpayers money? In order to determine whether work programs are successful, considerations of an evaluation deploying proper statistical methods require a good number of people in the study. A possible way to gauge former inmates may be to question and get information and ask questions during visits to parole officers. In reality, however, attempts to gather self-reported crime in this fashion has the possibility of yielding poor results. Former inmates reluctantly make confessions of crimes. Moreover, working through a parole office increases the difficulty of guaranteeing the anonymity of research subjects. More than 700,000 people are released from state and Federal prison annually while another 9 million cycle through local jails over and over. Statistics provided by the Office of National Drug Control Policy indicate that more than two-thirds of state prisoners are rearrested within three years of their release and half are re-incarcerated(Caporizzo, 2011). More crime, more victims, and more pressure on an already overburdened criminal justice system are named as the causes for recidivism. Recidivism can be defined in different ways and in different contexts. A generally used meaning might be a rectum to crime. It is almost impossible to truly gauge the rate of rectum to crime for any group of former prisoners because of the difficulty to locate individuals. The Administrations National Drug Control Strategy supports comprehensive change within the criminal justice system stating that, promoting a combined public health/public safety approach to stop the all-too-common cycle of arrest, incarceration, release, and re-arrest of prior offenders (Dryden, 1975). The cost for incarceration stretches far beyond the prison walls, meals provided to inmates daily, and the guards who potentially put themselves in harms way each day. The United States incarcerates more people than any other country in the world. It costs over $26,000 to incarcerate one federal prisoner for one year more than the average cost of one year of college education. American taxpayers spend over $60 billion each year on prisons. Half of all federal prisoners and one in five state prisoners are there for drug related offenses which are usually a nonviolent. Men who have served time in prison earn 40 percent less each year than men who have not been in prison. One in every 28 children under age 18 has a parent in prison. Long mandatory sentences have led to overcrowded, unsafe prisons that are less cost-effective than alternatives like treatment and drug courts (Caporizzo, 2011). Reentry programs are designed to assist incarcerated individuals with a successful transition to their community after they are released. President Obamas has a strategy called the National Drug Control Strategy that calls for supporting post-incarceration reentry efforts by assisting former inmates in job placement, facilitating access to drug-free housing, and providing other supportive services. Obamas National Drug Control Strategy is participating in the Federal Interagency Reentry Council, first convened in January 2011 by Attorney General Eric Holder who states, The Councils main purpose is to make communities safer, assisting those returning from prison and jail in becoming productive, tax-paying citizens and saving taxpayer dollars by lowering the direct and collateral costs of incarceration (Caporizzo, 2011). The access to college courses, another program that is offered to inmates, has been available to increasingly large numbers of prisoners since the early seventies. Public funds support such educational programs. As part of governmental criminal justice policy, one explicit aim of this prison higher education has been to reduce the likelihood of criminal behavior among those released from prison. Have prison college programs reduced recidivism? When examination of follow-up data from matched comparison groups that have not received programs was compared to groups that have received the programs, little difference from the treatment was often seen. It was concluded that correctional rehabilitation programs were by and large ineffective in reducing recidivism. There are two theories that attempt at explaining why former inmates return to prison. The first of this theory is the opportunity theory. It claims that crime derives from a persons lack of opportunity for legitimate economic advancement. The expectation that prisoners who earn college credits will get better jobs after release than they would otherwise, according to this theory, justifies prison college classes. Some criminologists, observing the slight impact social programs have had on recidivism rates, lack confidence in opportunity theory to do much about the crime problem. Moral development is the second theory that has been used to justify prison college programs. According to this view, a prisoner becomes more generally honest by studying and discussing the moral dilemmas encountered in liberal arts courses. Quite apart from the intervening cause of getting a good job, thus, the theory of moral development sees higher education operating directly on personality to produce law-abiding behavior (Lockwood, p. 140). It was found that participation in work-release or college programs had no effect on the length of time until return to criminal activity, the percentage of men who return to criminal activity, or the frequency of participation in criminal activity after release from prison. However, there was a highly significant effect on the seriousness of criminal activity. Both the average length of sentence received and the length of the most serious sentence are significantly lower for men who participated in a work-release program. Men who were not on work release were found to have a much greater probability of returning to prison for a felony than those men who participated in a work-release program. The effectiveness of work release on providing work experience and a stable job record is supported by the greater work stability, lower unemployment rate, and higher wages of men who have been on a work-release program when compared with men who have not been on the program. Greater work stability is associated with a decline in the seriousness of criminal activity. 16 percent of the men who had been on work release claimed it helped them after prison by providing a job reference, and 25 percent said the work experience they gained helped them significantly after release. It was also found that there was little objective support for attributing the effectiveness of work release to increased family stability. Being married and having dependents also has no significant association with the seriousness of criminal activity. Subjectively, men who had been on work release found the ability it gave them to support their dependents while in prison to be one of the most important benefits o f the program. There was little objective support for believing that work release provided new job skills. Most work-release jobs have a low skill level. The skill level of the first job after release for former work release inmates were significantly higher than the skill level of the first job obtained by men who had not been on a work-release program. The fact that 39 percent of the men had been on a work-release program remained on their work-releasejobs at least for a short period after release from prison supports the effectiveness of work-release in providing a job after prison. However, staying on ones work-release job does not appear to be significantly related to the seriousness of criminal activity. The effect of work release in providing a man with money on release is rather interesting. Subjectively, men who had been on work release found the money it provided them on release to be the single most important benefit of the work-release program. The project had no objective measure of the effect of contacts with the free community on postrelease performance. However, 30 percent of the men who had been on work release said that their experience eased their adjustment. According to the findings by Lynn Goodstein (1980), work-release is a successful program: men who have been on the work-release program commit less serious criminal offenses after release from prison. Although the determinate sentence is generally discussed as a unified concept, it appears to be comprised of two independent factors which can be considered separately-equity in sentencing and predictability of release. Evidence from psychological research on stress and intrinsic motivation is presented to substantiate claims by critics of the indeterminate sentence that it results in heightened inmate-anxiety and poor program-performance. Ensuring predictability of release is an important objective which is likely to result in benefits for both inmates and the correctional system as a whole (Goodstein, p. 365). A Panel on Research on Rehabilitative Techniques of the National Research Council drew a random sample of the cases that Lipton, Martinson, and Wilks examined. They carried out an independent analysis of these data (Sechrest, White, and Brown, 1979). Even though the Panel found the research methods used in these evaluations so inadequate that only a few studies allowed for sure conclusions, they did make this statement in 1979: We do not now know of any program or method of rehabilitation that could be guaranteed to reduce the criminal activity of released offendersbut the quality of the work that has been done and the narrow range of options explored militates against any policy reflecting a final pessimism. (Sechrest, White, and Brown, 1979, p.34). This still holds true today. Since 1979, when the National Research Council Panel carried out its work, prison higher education programs have proliferated. But given the conclusion of the panel, and the results of the Martinson Report, why should one think that prison higher education will reduce recidivism any more than other programs that have failed? In considering this question one can look to at least two theories of crime. These propositions, if true, could justify the cost to the public of providing college education to imprisoned offenders as a rational crime prevention measure.

What is the effect on the audience of John Proctors decision in act 4? :: English Literature

What is the effect on the audience of John Proctors decision in act 4? How does miller build up tension and drama in this section? How is it still relevant to a modern audience? This essay is on the main importance of John Proctors decision and how Miller builds up a sense of tension (and also drama) throughout Act 4. I will also mention how relevant the play is in modern day times by discussing McCarthyism. Firstly, John Proctors decision in this section is quite simple, sign the agreement or not. But it is the way that this section influences the audience that is significant, because it gets the audience more involved. John has several problems with signing the agreement, for example in signing the agreement he signs his name away, in other words he will lose his reputation. We can learn that Proctor values his name, and sees it as the only thing he has left, apart from Elizabeth; â€Å"I have given you my soul, leave me my name!† This shows us, the audience which Proctor although is shown as a stern man through out the play, in this part he is shown as being emotional and considers his name as a symbol of self respect. Following on from the previous point, humiliation is used well to make us feel sorry for Proctor due to the fact that he is faced with his name and confession being pinned to the church door, the example of this is, when Proctor exclaims; â€Å"God does not need my name nailed to the church door† This helps us strengthen our beliefs that Proctor values his name. Proctor also has other reasons to struggle with his decision, mainly because the others involved are what we know as saints; Rebecca and Martha are very holy people, who believe that they should never lie, even though the consequences may be as extravagant as death, the two saints are holding out against the interrogation of Danforth, therefore John takes it into account that although he is not as holy as they are, to keep the faith, he must hold out, but, the audience gets a shock when John considers the agreement, this gives us an element of surprise and a will he wont he effect, making us watch even more avildly. Other influential things that help John make the decision, is the fact he has a family, he has two boys who he does ask questions about, not only does he ask about his two boys, but also he asks about his unborn child and his wife Elizabeth, who he cares for dearly; an example of

Essay --

From analgesics to chemotherapy, over the years Medicinal Chemistry has helped treat a range of diseases and pathogens. My reasons for wanting to pursue a career in this field stem from my fascination with how drugs function and recondition imbalances in the human body. How a tiny tablet, so small and insignificant looking, can at times achieve such life-enhancing results. However that simple tablet requires a substantial amount of engineering for it to restore the body’s natural rhythm. After reading the article â€Å"Inside the Mind of a Medicinal Chemist† I discovered how computers and algorithms are used to make the decision process behind compound prioritization easier, which in turn reduces the amount of time spent on manufacturing the product. It is fascinating to learn that consensus is not always achievable between medicinal chemists and this highlighted for me the scope of opportunities available for research within the field. My love for Chemistry fuels my analytical approach which is why I am constantly querying the â€Å"how?† and the â€Å"why?† behind the engineering of medicine. I...

Mohandas Ghandi Essay -- Biography Biographies

Mohandas Ghandi Satyagraha. Meaning "force or firmness of truth, Mohandas Gandhi worked and lived by this word. By peaceful, non-violent demonstrations he little by little took hold of the people of India's love and honor and freed them from British rule. This is his story: On October 2, 1869 in Porbandar, India, a region of Queen Victoria, Mohandas Gandhi was born to Kaba Gandhi and his wife. Although his father, Kaba, was the chief Minister for the Maharaja of Porbandar, he and his family lived in a small house and belonged to a Hindu caste of merchants called "banjas." As he grew, Mohandas became a small, shy and skinny boy, afraid of others' opinions. He never spoke out, but although he was never a clever child, others were surprised by his gentleness. At the age of thirteen, he was married to Kastaurbai, a pretty yet strongwilled girl of the same caste. He would now live with his wife, instead of his mother and father whom he had cared for for so long. Before this, Mohandas had told lies, had smoked, and had eaten meat, which was strictly forbidden of Hindus. Now, suddenly, he felt guilty and that he had hurt himself and in some ways those who he cared for. So, in desperation, he told his father, and they cried together. One year later Kaba Gandhi died. Mohandas was sixteen. At eighteen he traveled to England to study law and secretly to see for himself what made the English so powerful. He enrolled in a college of law but quit after one term. He felt that he didn't fit in, so he studied the " Standard Elocutionist" for use and knowledge of proper ettiquitte. After a while he quit this also because he saw no use anymore. Quitting became a popular theme in his early life. Sometimes he quit because he was bored with something and just grew out of it, or sometimes when he just couldn't accomplish anything. For example, he took English dancing and violin lessons to become more distinguished, but he was very clumsy and quit after six lessons. He did not quit every thing though. He worked at some things if he thought that it would in some way help him. He studied material on Common & Roman laws and had to pass major exams on it. Despite all of the quiting and studying, he became a lawyer. He was not a very distinguished or even good one at first, but later became respected by his friends and clients after his work on a case in South A... ...he was killed though, all of that changed. Everyone was sad, and the Hindu people were ashamed that it was one of them who had killed him. People began to worship Gandhi in the ways that he had hated. They knew that if he would have been able to speak a few words before he died he would have said to the people to "have mercy on the misguided Godse", but knowing this, they still hanged his assassin. Gandhi once said: "I have no strength, save what God gives me. I have no authority over my country men, save the purely moral." And he more than anyone knew how weak that authority could be. Over time, Mohandas freed India from the British rule, earning rights and respect for his people and a lasting place in history. In my opinion, like everyone else's. he was a great man putting others ahead of himself, but above all else wanting, hoping, and dying for peace. BIBLIOGRAPHY Franda, Marcus and Vonetta J. " Gandhi, Mahatama." The New Electronic Encyclopedia. 1991, Grolier Electronic Publishing. Iyer, Raghavan. " Gandhi, Mohandas." The World Book Encyclopedia. 1989 ed. Reynolds, Reginald. The True Story of Gandhi, Man of Peace. Chicago: Children's press, 1964.

Bakery Business Plan Essay

We want to open a bakery likes 85 degrees C in the Songjiang University Town around our school. First, we will introduce 85 degrees C.It is Taiwan-style catering company, mainly engaged in supplying coffee and dessert. Its name means that â€Å"coffee tastes best at the temperature of 85 degree centigrade † , and it’s set up on the basic of five-star chef and banquet’s specified top-level coffee .This shop is a new form of creative, it makes shop more bright with elegant lamplight , and suits with brand image, so that it can bring the consumer different feeling in the bright open space, at the same time the consumer can enjoy the sense of beauty and temptation from the delicious dessert, which will makes your sight〠smelling and tasting feel brand new. 85 degrees C is created in 2004, and at present, 85 degrees C has became a chain of enterprise, and has more than 340 stores in Taiwan, annual operating income is more than RMB 1.5 billion, has exceed more than 200 Starbucks in Taiwan area. Over the years, it is becoming more and more popular among consumers, especially among the young. There are a large number of students in the Songjiang University Town, it can meet the demands of the students’ need. So if we open a store like 85 degrees C, it will have a big market. We aim to offer our high quality products at a competitive price to meet the demands of the university students. Our bakery managed by our four partners. There are Peach, Helen, __ and I. Each of us has a different responsibility. Peach is in charge of the sales, marketing and supply chain, and I am in charge of the administration and finance. Helen is interested in bakery, so she is in charge of the quality of our products and purchase. And ** is in charge of the customer service. Our bakery also intends to hire two full-time pastry bakers whose duty is making bread and we also have two part-time staff to handle customer service and day to day operations. Products and service We offer a broad range of milk, tea, coffee in high quality, and also provide freshly prepared bakery and pastry products at all time. We cater to all the students’ demands by providing each student high quality products. And make our products suit the customer’s taste, down to the smallest detail. Our bakery provides freshly prepared bakery and pastry products at all times during business operations. Moderate batches of bakery and pastry products are prepared during the day to assure fresh baked goods are always available. Especially in the morning, we will provide the fresh, healthy, delicious bread and milk for all the students to let them have a better breakfast. We provide a comfortable place for students to have rest. We also provide free WIFI, you can come and have fun in surfing the Internet if you take your PC or mobile phone which WIFI allow. Competitor Analysis From the research we can see that there are several bakery shops around us, such as Lillian Cake Shop〠Christine bread house, but we can find some problems with them. On the one hand, it has a very high cost. On the other hand, the environment there is too crowded. The most important reason is that there is no special bakery near our school, so we can open a bakery around. Main Competitions We may meet the following risks. First, the threat of potential entrants. Second, competition in this industry. Third, the threat of alternative products. Fourth, the buyer’s bargaining power is very strong. Keys to Success and Promotion 〠market penetration Keys to success for our bakery will include: 1. Providing the highest quality products with personal customer service. 2. Competitive pricing. 3. Features of our products. 4. Advertisements and colorful activities. 5. Atmosphere Because we think that our student is not only like delicious food but also looking for high quality and fresh products in a relaxing atmosphere where they can chat with their friends, relax themselves, read some books and review their homework. We also provide free WIFI, you can come and have fun in surfing the Internet . Our promotion and market penetration Promotion strategies will include three parts. Including Advance publicity〠Later publicity and activities. Advance publicity will be large-scale, high strength and invest more. Later publicity will pay more attention to the customer relationship management. In addition to these, we will hold some specific activities planning and organization, such as sponsor the school party, in order to promote our bakery, at the same time we can also remind customer’s awareness through the activities. For the holidays, we will carry out targeted promotion strategies such as send leaflets and give some discounts to the customer. Market Segmentation Our bakery wants to establish a large regular customer base, and we will therefore concentrate our business and marketing on Songjiang university students, which will be the dominant target market. This will establish a healthy, consistent revenue base to ensure stability of the business. Market analysis The dominant target market for our bakery is university students. Personal and expedient customer service at a competitive price is the key to maintaining the local market share of this target market. Because the students in Songjiang University Town have a higher demand on food, they always like fresh and good-tasted food and they also want a comfortable place to have rest. We provide fresh baked bread. You can always see our Baker in the continuous production of bread. We also provide delicious mike tea and coffee all days, especially on the breakfast time and dinner time. And the comfortable place for you and your friends is always available. Financial Considerations Our bakery shop expects to borrow about $500,000 from you. Mainly used for the purchase of raw materials, the loan, staff training, market promotion. We anticipates sales of about $614,000 in the first year, and $814,000 in the second year, of the plan. We should break even by the fourth month of its operation as it steadily increases its sales. So the company does not anticipate any cash flow problems.